Original Research

Participatory budgeting in the digital era: Challenges and opportunities in the City of Bulawayo, Zimbabwe

Nqobile Sikhosana, Mokgadi Molope

Received: 16 Oct. 2025; Accepted: 10 Mar. 2026; Published: 24 Apr. 2026

Copyright: © 2026. The Authors. Licensee: AOSIS.
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Abstract

Background: Participatory budgeting (PB) techniques have emerged to promote democratic engagement with local government to influence local government expenditures and ensure priorities of all role-players are incorporated into the budgets. Innovative strategies have been implemented to integrate digital transformations into local government operations, and PB processes have also been affected by these developments.

Aim: The study aims to examine the adoption and use of digital platforms in PB initiatives in the City of Bulawayo.

Methods: This study, grounded on the interpretivist paradigm, employs qualitative research methodologies to generate its findings and conclusions.

Results: Findings indicate that the City of Bulawayo has significantly advanced in integrating the perspectives of marginalised groups through their active involvement in the initial phases of budgeting. In their commitment to fostering inclusion, they have adopted technological advancements and initiated attempts to engage communities via websites and social media platforms, like Facebook and X.

Conclusion: The study concludes that power and class relations have adversely affected the adoption of digital platforms in enhancing PB. The majority of citizens have not found internet venues to be conducive for voicing their concerns, due to obstacles such as inadequate accountability, insufficient digital literacy and affordability constraints.

Contribution: The study bridges the knowledge gap by exploring the correlation between PB and digital transformation, an area that is under-researched in the Zimbabwean context. The research also contributes to the jurisdiction of local government and public administration at large by infusing existing digital transformations within the traditional mechanisms of participatory governance.

Keywords: participatory budgeting; Bulawayo; digital technology; local government; E-participation; transparency.

Introduction

Community participation in local governance processes has emerged as a critical component in ensuring that development initiatives address the needs of citizens. In line with the digital transformations sweeping across the globe, public sector organisations and institutions have been obliged to incorporate such innovations into the traditional participatory initiatives to bridge the existing gaps between citizens and local government authorities. Empirical evidence demonstrates that participatory budgeting (PB) has become one of the local government tools that has been transformed through the adoption of digital innovations. By its conceptualisation, PB refers to the involvement of various stakeholders in all the budget stages to influence budget expenditures. Zimbabwean local government institutions have not remained immune to these changes. Zinyama (2014) recommended the adoption of e-governance systems to address participation gaps in Zimbabwe’s local government budgeting processes. In a similar vein, Manduna, Zinyama and Nhema (2015) examined the implementation of PB initiatives across the country and concluded that the conditions were unfavourable for their success. Marumahoko, Chigwata and Nhede (2018) observed that the government missed an opportunity to use its democratic framework to incorporate diverse voices in the budgeting process. Using the 2018 budget cycle as an example, they highlighted widespread dissatisfaction, protests and confrontations. Whilst insightful, their study stopped short of offering concrete improvements, limiting recommendations to the need for conceptualising a suitable model. Collectively, these studies enrich the discourse on PB, but they tend to overlook the transformative potential of e-PB. Its importance has been widely acknowledged in the Zimbabwean context (Mashingaidze, Wendy & Innocent 2021; Ndlovu & Van der Waldt 2025) and provides the motivation for this study.

Participatory budgeting began in Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 1989 (Do Carmo et al. 2024) and has emerged and gained traction as part of local governance democratic transformations across the globe. At the same time, digital transformations have been experienced across the globe, and the combination of the two concepts has culminated in e-PB. During the decade 2010–2020, national governments around the world expanded their digital services, and Mærøe at al. (2020) asserted that local governments have not remained immune to this wave of change. The main rationale behind the adoption of e-PB budgeting processes is the inclusion of citizens in the processes to relay their needs and priorities, thereby providing a democratic practice of governance. These programs are aimed at challenging the old bureaucratic forms of governance to ensure that local governments are more efficient and provide services that are in sync with the citizens’ needs (Abbasov 2025; Touchton, Wampler & Spada 2019).

In the context of many African countries, the relationship between public office bearers and citizens has been characterised by conflict, distrust, and disengagement since the attainment of their national independence (Msenge & Nzewi 2021). Such hostilities have emanated from alienation and exclusion from the decision-making processes and unresponsive service delivery. In this regard, many countries have emulated the Porto Alegre (Brazil) PB model, which sought to include citizens in the budgetary processes. Nevertheless, physical connection between the office bearers and citizens has been constrained by numerous factors, including resource scarcity, neglect of the most remote areas, and lack of representation, amongst many others (Botlhale 2023; Ibrahimy et al. 2025). E-participation in budgetary processes and procedures has been championed to bridge this gap and present citizens with an opportunity to ensure that their needs are reflected in local government budgets.

Like many governments across Africa, the Zimbabwean government has identified information and communication technology (ICT) as an essential industry for driving the national economy forward and achieving middle-income status by 2030. Zimbabwe’s National Development Strategy 1 (2021–2025) pledges to cultivate the endless possibilities of the ICT sector as one of the prerequisites for rapid industrialisation. In line with PB, the use of ICT became more prominent after the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic. According to Chikerema, Chakunda and Mukunyadze (2024), movement restrictions stifled citizen participation in local government financial management, making conventional approaches like open forums, consultations and conferences challenging or even impossible. Evidence points to the fact that Bulawayo’s City Council did not remain immune to these challenges, and such restrictions had an enormous effect on citizen participation in the budgeting processes, reducing citizens’ capacity to raise grievances and shape resource allocation decisions (Mitlin 2021). Digital government tools, including information exchange and online services, have been used to facilitate communication and bridge the gap between public office bearers and different stakeholders operating within the jurisdiction of local governments (Mofokeng, Ramolobe & Bogopa 2025). The use of digital technologies in Bulawayo’s City Council PB processes has the potential to help the municipality in making data-driven policy decisions and improve coordination capacities.

The aim of this article is to investigate the use of digital tools in the metropolitan City of Bulawayo, in Zimbabwe, and examine whether the processes are effective in improving citizens’ involvement in budgetary decisions. The key challenges and opportunities for urban development in implementing e-PB in the City of Bulawayo are addressed.

Conceptual clarification

This study is based on two building blocks, namely PB and digital technologies.

These variables are conceptualised to explore the relationship that exists between them.

Participatory budgeting

Over the past few decades, the concept of PB has gained traction in the local government set-up and amongst the scholarly fraternity (Bartocci et al. 2022; Jung 2021; Rubin & Ebdon 2020). The conceptualisation of PB is imperative for the current study to analyse whether it has been understood and adopted in accordance with its core components and principles in the City of Bulawayo. Bartocci et al (2022) argued that PB approaches vary from a broad perspective, translating the concept as an arrangement where the citizens have the opportunity to contribute opinions in all the stages of the budget, to a more stringent comprehension which involves transparency to all citizens, a combination of direct and representative democracy, deliberation rather than consultation and redistribution towards the poor. At the crux of PB is the idea that citizens’ needs and priorities must be reflected in local government budgets. Participatory budgeting has been conceptualised as a planning strategy that involves heterogeneous groups of society actively participating in budgetary choices in order to influence resource distribution (Sikhosana 2024). It is apparent then that the primary motivation for adopting and implementing PB is to shift the authority of decision-making from public office bearers to the public (Sikhosana 2024). The critical stages in the PB continuum include consultation, involvement, collaboration and empowerment. In this instance, citizens are not regarded as passive participants but are regarded as key stakeholders with some authority to influence local budget allocations.

Digital technologies

Digital technologies have become increasingly available to foster user-friendly innovation in the local government context. Comprehending this particular variable is critical for this study in ensuring that its operationalisation and adoption in the local government context are in line with its key principles. Hovik and Giannoumis (2022) assert that digital technologies take various forms, such as digital online forums and conferences, interactive web or mobile applications and electronic polls, amongst many others. The use of such technologies has been embraced by local governments to help management reduce the costs for municipal governments to crowdsource and consult with the citizens, limit participation barriers, promote equity and inclusion and enforce direct links between citizens and policymakers. The main point of departure in this article is that the expectation that digital technologies will help improve interaction between citizens and public office bearers remains elusive. More specifically, the use of such technologies in PB processes remains under-researched.

Literature review

Theoretical framework

Debates around the use of ICTs have culminated in the development of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). Marangunić and Granic (2015) posited that the TAM model, developed by Davis, Bagozzi and Warshaw (1989) over a quarter of a century ago, has become the most widely used model for understanding the elements that influence organisations or individuals’ acceptance of technology. Grounded in the tenets of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB), TAM has played a significant role in describing the behaviour of users toward technology. With the increasing development of ICT and its incorporation in institutional development, the decisions to accept or reject TAM have captured the attention of scholars.

This study is premised on the tenets of TAM that can be used for better comprehension of how institutions and people view and utilise digital resources, which is critical for both digital inclusion and e-participation. In line with the current study, the TAM can be utilised for local government e-PB procedures by investigating the extent to which both public office bearers and communities understand and employ the digitised budgeting services. According to Davis et al. (1989), TAM focuses on the two main factors: (1) perceived usefulness and (2) perceived ease of use. The first factor focuses on the extent to which users believe the digital technologies will enhance their engagement, whilst the second factor concentrates on digital technologies’ usability. Based on this, local governments have the opportunity to establish e-PB mechanisms that are user-friendly and accessible to allow citizens to influence budget allocations. More so, by addressing these aspects, TAM is relevant for this study because it assures higher adoption rates and increased or efficient engagement since individuals are more likely to use the digitised system if they consider it useful and user-friendly.

Participatory budgeting in Zimbabwe: An overview

In the Zimbabwean local government context, PB is institutionalised by Chapter 29:15 of the Urban Councils Act no.24 of 1995 (Manduna et al. 2015). The Urban Councils Act 1995 makes it a requirement that all municipal plans for spending be made available in three issues of any newspaper publication to give the citizens an opportunity to review the budget (Urban Councils Act 1995). The Act also allows the general population to file complaints or contributions to the draft budget within 30 days of receiving notification of three problems in a newspaper. In this case, PB has gained traction in the local government domain as a tool to allow citizens to relay their needs.

The Prime Minister’s Directive on Decentralisation and Development of 1984/5 laid the groundwork for the improvement of local democracy by establishing ward meetings that enabled residents to participate in developmental discussions (Mukushwa, Mapuwa & Mutema 2021). In order to strengthen the democratic process in localities, the national government issued an array of legislative declarations, including the Local Authorities Circular of 2019, which required all local governments to consider citizen input whilst on the formulation, assessment and execution of their expenditures (Ndlovu & Van der Waldt 2025). Furthermore, the adoption of the 2013 Constitution reorganised and tried to revolutionise the concept and practice of citizen participation in municipal government. Section 264 (a) stated that:

[T]he objective of devolving government powers and responsibilities is to give powers of local governance to the people and enhance their participation in the exercise of the State’s powers and in making decisions affecting them. (p. 103)

whereas Section 264 (d) acknowledges ‘the right of communities to manage their own affairs’ and to further encourage their growth (Constitution of Zimbabwe Amendment Act No. 20 of 2013). This is where residents obtain their obligations to provide input to the formulation of municipal budgets, exemplifying the PB paradigm (Mukushwa et al. 2021).

Chikerema (2013) described PB as a legislative model, established as part of a larger tactical attempt to foster democratic representation in local governments. The primary goals of PB are to increase civic engagement and involvement in governance at the local level, to include residents in developing self-sustaining alternative sources of income, and to foster openness and responsibility in municipal financial management and spending (Chikerema 2013). Participatory budgeting is distinguished by several fundamental characteristics, including the designation of budgetary priorities by residents, the nomination of budget representatives to stand for different communities and vote on expenditure priorities and the implementation of local direct effect community projects (Chikerema 2013; Ndlovu & Van der Waldt 2025). The benefits of such arrangements include improved accountability, transparency and enhanced public trust. These are the key antecedents of local government democracy and responsive governance.

Despite the institutionalisation of PB in the Zimbabwean local government context, a myriad of challenges have been documented, showing that its adoption has never been smooth. Drawing their findings from the Harare City Council, Manduna et al. (2015) argued that the effective implementation of PB has been affected by resource constraints, bureaucratic systems, political schisms, negative dispositions of PB implementers, corruption and the flawed legislative frameworks. Chigumbu (2020) carried out a study on the challenges confronting the Zimbabwean municipalities using Chitungwiza Municipality as a case study. Findings revealed that residents have limited access to the physical budget, and this has stifled the efforts or residents to influence budgetary decisions. Interference by the central government across the Zimbabwean municipalities continues to place residents on the periphery of municipal budget procedures (Chigumbu 2020). Other factors inhibiting the implementation of PB include poor communication and limited time, political polarisation at council, residents’ apathy and public mistrust. The aforementioned challenges testify to the broader conclusion amongst the scholars (Chigumbu 2020; Manduna et al. 2015; Mapuva 2019) of PB that the concept has not been effectively implemented across the country. A review of the literature on PB shows a lack of studies with a specific focus on the metropolitan City Council of Bulawayo, and this motivates the need for the current study.

The use of digital tools in participatory budgeting

Digital tools, including information exchange and internet-based solutions, have been used to facilitate interaction between governments and residents. In this case, digital technology has helped governments to make timelier, data-driven policy decisions, improve local government coordination capacities, and deliver evidence-based services to people in most need (Chikerema et al. 2024). In the age of ICTs and the internet’s democratising perspective, local governments must be dedicated and committed to digital transition in methods that elevate public governance norms. There have been numerous studies (Abbasov 2025; Salahudin et al. 2024; Santolamazza, Mattei & Grandis 2024) on website transparency or internet-enabled openness, although the majority have been carried out in developed nations, with very few conducted in underdeveloped countries. Throughout the course of time, Zimbabwe’s municipal government industry has faced several corruption-related difficulties and inconsistencies, which might be mitigated by adhering to openness and responsibility norms. Financial incompetence, noncompliance with authorised international accounting regulations, misuse of council assets and a lack of contract management procedures are amongst the issues (Machivenyika 2023). Previous efforts to confront the rising corruption in some Zimbabwean local governments have failed due to a lack of governmental will, insufficient surveillance of public servants, bribery, cooperation, partisanship and political clientelism (Lodge 2019). The main rationale behind the use of digital tools is to enforce internet-based transparency, and this needs to be extended to budgetary processes and how the public influences municipal expenditure.

The main rationale behind this study is that digital technologies are meant to effectively enlarge public areas whilst also decentralising and democratising communication in the public realm. In the most developed countries, digital technologies have influenced and revolutionised the nature of the modern public sphere by enabling cyber-democracy and/or e-democracy, and digitalising processes of data access, communication and exchange between government agencies and their different publics. According to Da Cruz et al. (2015), digital tools have been essential in helping residents in marginalised communities to form active virtual communities that engage in online engagements with national and subnational governments. In Zimbabwe, the statutory foundation for maintaining openness within municipal government is contained in two pieces of legislation, namely the Constitution of Zimbabwe Amendment Act (No. 20) of 2013 and the Freedom of Information Act (No. 1) of 2020. Section 64 of Zimbabwe’s Constitution Amendment Act No. 20 of 2013 guarantees the right to access information ‘held by the State or by any institution or agency of government at every level, in so far as the information is required in the interests of public accountability’. Section 194 establishes ‘basic values and principles governing public administration’ that apply to all levels of government. These statutory instruments require local governments to adopt information disclosure policies, which leads to the additional requirement of keeping, organising and managing information for the purposes of public accountability. In this regard, the use of ICT has gained prominence to connect public administrators with the citizens.

In Zimbabwe, digital governance gained traction after the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, and local governments across the country moved to use technological resources and platforms that enhance administration, the provision of services, accountability, openness and citizen participation. Extant and current literature (Bowers 2014; Kanyane, Mutema & Zikhali 2020; Mapuva & Mapuva-Munyengwa 2015) iterates the use of digital tools, especially social media platforms, in enhancing accountability and transparency. In the Zimbabwean local government domain, evidence points to the effective use of WhatsApp platforms and Facebook to engage local government officials by the citizens in Harare and Bulawayo municipalities (Masimba et al. 2022). More so, evidence of increased levels of participation stemming from the use of digital tools in Zimbabwean local government is well documented. Masimba et al. (2022) argue that the use of Facebook Live has enabled citizens in Harare and Bulawayo to raise their grievances in real time. However, key stumbling blocks such as high data costs have been highlighted as daunting challenges. Digital tools in local government have also been lauded for increasing awareness and providing access to relevant information about the municipal budgets. Using Chitungwiza as their case study, Matimani and Rajah (2015) elucidate that the use of digital platforms and sharing of information through the municipal website and social media platform meant that citizens were empowered to amplify their voices on matters affecting their daily lives. Despite the potential of the digital tools in bridging the gap between residents and City Council Officials, however, the use of such technologies to bridge the gap between public office bearers and residents in the context of local government budgeting processes seems limited. The most disheartening feature in the Zimbabwean context is the lack of political resolve to enhance the integration of ICT systems within the public sector (Chikerema et al. 2024). This emanates from the reality that the implementation and adoption of information technology exert a disruptive impact on conventional public administrative systems. This has often led to resistance against the adoption of digital technology systems, especially amongst public officials with vested interests in the traditional systems. Some of the documented obstacles include inadequate or constrained development of electronic government infrastructure as well as the underutilisation of such resources (National ICT Policy 2022–2027). Murenzi and Olivier (2017) identified multiple obstacles to the utilisation of online municipal information, including:

ICT illiteracy; restricted access to modern ICT devices due to low income; inadequate access to ICT infrastructures; low general literacy levels amongst citizens; English illiteracy; and lack of awareness regarding available e-government services. (p. 141)

The main consequences of poor information technology governance hinder the effective operation of transparency tools under different scenarios.

Methods and materials

This study is grounded on the interpretivist paradigm, and it adopted a qualitative case study technique to unearth challenges and opportunities for the adoption of digital technologies in the context of PB in the metropolitan City of Bulawayo. The qualitative research involved the collection and analysis of empirical literature and non-numerical data to contextualise opinions, comprehend experiences, and evaluate concepts. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 15 (n = 15) participants selected through purposive and snowball sampling methods. These methods were used to get insights from the information-rich participants who are involved in municipal budget processes and community participation in the city. Snowball sampling technique was essential, as a chain-referral method, in accessing hard-to-reach participants. In the present investigation, emphasis was placed on achieving saturation to guarantee sufficient data collection. The employed sample strategy guaranteed data collection from informed respondents regarding the use of digital technologies to enforce effective PB. The units of analysis included the municipal officials from different departments, councillors, stakeholders and civil society organisations engaged in citizen participation processes. The researchers consulted specialists in public participation and municipal governance as think tanks to offer their thoughts and experiences on the topic being examined.

The data collection process lasted 3 months (June–August 2025), and it utilised three primary instruments, unstructured interviews, document analysis and observation. The in-depth interviews were conducted on a face-to-face basis in the workstations of the key informants after obtaining consent. The interviews lasted between 45 min and 1 h. This allowed the researchers to probe for further clarification on the adoption and challenges encountered by the City of Bulawayo in incorporating digital tools in PB processes. Open-ended interactions with the study participants provided them with an opportunity to express their opinions and allowed the researchers to elicit a variety of responses, both anticipated and surprising. Voice recorders were used to gather information. Nevertheless, some of the Key Informants (KIIs) were not willing to get recorded, and the process became time-consuming as researchers had to write down all their responses. For the purposes of triangulation, document analysis was used to guarantee the credibility and reliability of the primary findings. The literature reviews involved the explicit reproduction and systematic synthesis, evaluation, and identification of existing data not collected for primary research purposes. The researchers also adopted observations to confirm or refute the primary findings. This was done by going through the City of Bulawayo website, Facebook page and X handle, amongst other digital platforms, to analyse the extent to which engagement on budgetary decisions exists between the residents and city officials.

Thematic analysis was employed to analyse the empirical data. The methodology involved familiarising and categorising data, creating and refining themes. The researchers used NVivo for qualitative data analysis. The research ensured trustworthiness by prioritising the credibility and accuracy of the findings. It is imperative to note that the employed research methodology facilitated the acquisition of comprehensive and detailed data on the challenges and opportunities for digital technologies adoption in the context of PB in local government. The researchers aimed to comprehend the existing participatory governance difficulties, the present status of digital technology adoption and recommendations for expediting technology adoption to bridge the gap between citizens and local government administrators. Ethical integrity and key considerations were upheld throughout the process of data gathering and engagement with study participants. To enforce procedural ethics, an ethics clearance certificate was obtained from the North-West University Basic Social Science Research Ethics Committee. More so, permission to conduct this study was sought from the gatekeepers in the City of Bulawayo offices, and this eased the process of entry and engagement with the key informants sampled for this current investigation. More so, informed consent was obtained from all the study participants to avoid deception. This was done through the distribution of informed consent forms, which were signed by all participants to ensure that they understood the main purpose of the study. This also enforced voluntary participation in the study. Other ethical issues, such as confidentiality and anonymity, were guaranteed by the protection of personal information so that the findings cannot be linked back to any individual.

Ethical considerations

Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the North-West University Basic and Social Sciences Research Ethics Committee (No. NWU-00936-25-A7).

Results

This section of the article delves into results and findings generated from in-depth interviews. Thematic analysis was adopted, and key themes such as the importance of PB, available digital tools for PB and obstacles that limit the success of e-participatory budgeting in the City of Bulawayo are discussed in line with the objectives of the study. The findings are also discussed in line with the two main tenets of the TAM, which include the extent to which study participants believe the digital tools enhance their engagement in PB processes, whilst the second factor concentrates on digital tools’ usability in relaying their concerns.

Perceptions on the importance of participatory budgeting

Participatory budgeting has gained traction in the local government context, and the City of Bulawayo has not remained immune to this wave of change to enforce democratic decision-making and bridge the gap between residents and City Council administrators. Using the Porto Alegre model, the City Council has designed its budgetary processes to ensure that decentralisation remains institutionalised to engage stakeholders and other civil society organisations and advance active deliberations on budget expenditures and revenue collection.

Participants interviewed in this current study expressed mixed opinions on the adoption and implementation of PB in the City of Bulawayo. There is a consensus amongst the participants that PB can be a tool to dismantle the conventional top-down approaches to budgeting, which see the process as too technical to involve residents and other stakeholders. One of the key informants argued that:

‘… this tool is key in placing the residents and other stakeholders at the centre of the budget process because it enforces transparency and accountability in the sense that they now have the authority to determine revenue collection and expenditure.’ (Participant 2, Male, Age 46)

This viewpoint focuses on the reality that PB has been used as a decision-making tool that is meant to negotiate the distribution of the City of Bulawayo’s funds. A closer scrutiny of their budgetary processes showed that collaboration of stakeholders and public-private partnerships ensured that the proposed budgets align with the needs and priorities of residents. A participant from a key department in the City Council reiterated that:

‘Our processes encourage consultation to seek input from residents especially in the pre-budget phase which is important for identification of needs and priorities. The formulation of budget is then grounded on the needs identified by residents, business community, and civil society establishments. More so, elected Councillors also play a role in the approval stage because the proposed budget undergoes review by the council before approval … this demonstrates our commitment to ensure that PB remains an important tool to bridge the gap between us and relevant stakeholders.’ (Participant 5, Male, Age 38)

The main deduction from the participant’s response is that PB serves the purpose of improving local government democracy, improving City Council performance and decentralising decision-making authority. Evidence points to the notion that PB has been used to improve the standard of democracy by fostering involvement and dialogue in spending choices. It enhances the City Council’s efficacy by imposing more regulations, limitations and oversight on the city government concerning fiscal choices. Lastly, the tool decentralises decision-making by making the budgeting process transparent and enabling citizens to impact budget distribution. Participants have argued that the adoption of PB has helped to furnish knowledge about community goals, assist in identifying those initiatives that warrant initial funding and supply improved data for decision-makers and administrators by deepening their comprehension of public needs and values. In order to facilitate a democratic dialogue and promote debate on democracy, City Council employees agreed that it is essential to employ various public platforms and offer resources for political education for PB to work effectively and serve its purpose.

The adoption of PB in the City of Bulawayo has not been a smooth one and should not always be romanticised as the process remains marred by a myriad of challenges such as power dynamics, resource constraints and political interference. In-depth interviews with different stakeholders, including residents’ associations, demonstrate disillusionment amongst residents based on the arguments that PB processes are flawed and are implemented for formality purposes:

‘… the residents and the City Council authorities are always up in arms because of issues to do with budgets. Yes, there are some consultations that take place before the formulation and approval of the budgets but in most cases, residents and other stakeholders only rubberstamp the decisions of authorities.’ (Participant 15, Female, Age 52)

Another participant had this to say:

‘The main issue is that of power dynamics in this whole participatory budgeting exercise. Previous experience shows that the City Council budget has not represented everyone equally because it is dominated by the most powerful individuals. In this case, the needs and priorities of minority groups such as women and young people are always on the periphery …’ (Participant 1, Male, Age 54)

The challenges of PB in the City of Bulawayo raised an ugly head when the approval of the 2025 budget was delayed owing to disputes and the collapsed relationship between stakeholders and City authorities. It is worth pointing out that the rejection by the Ministry of Local Government and Public Works to approve the City’s 2025 budget was based on a breakdown in the relationship between the authorities and the relevant stakeholders. The main consequence of this budget impasse includes delays in service rendering, such as waste management and infrastructure maintenance in the city. This article argues that the continuity of PB frequently depends on the political resolve and financial stability of the city. Further engagements through in-depth interviews demonstrated that a decrease in engagement between the City Council authorities and stakeholders may result from participation weariness and inadequate practices. Limited outreach efforts have also resulted in processes that lack inclusivity, so excluding marginalised groups from participation. An expert in PB demonstrated dissatisfaction with the City of Bulawayo PB model by reiterating that:

‘The main challenge with the model adopted in this city is that the involvement of residents and other stakeholders ends at the earliest stages of budget formulation … if you look at other models from other countries you will discover that corridors are open for residents and stakeholders to monitor budget spending, which has been lacking in the model adopted by Bulawayo.’ (Participant 3, Male, Age 48)

Furthermore, insufficient or ineffective facilitation has also contributed to disproportionate involvement, where certain voices dominate the PB discourse whilst others are silenced. In this regard, the main point of departure is that conventional methods of PB in the city have limited effective engagement and consultation, as residents must attend physical meetings, which have proven difficult to arrange in the digital era. The next sub-section delves into the extent to which the City of Bulawayo has leveraged digital technologies in PB processes.

Available digital tools to enhance participatory budgeting

Digital technologies serve as mechanisms to augment involvement and re-establish the connection between citizens and public officials. These instruments enable a greater number of individuals, particularly minorities, to have digital access to an expanded array of information and resources pertaining to PB processes. Since the outbreak of COVID-19, digital tools for e-governance have gained significant traction amongst city administrators in the City of Bulawayo, as they facilitate greater accessibility and liberate citizens from temporal and spatial constraints associated with specific processes. Evidence from the interviews conducted points to the reality that various digital tools have been used in the context of PB in the city. One key informant had this to say:

‘After the COVID-19 pandemic we had to look for innovative ways of connecting with the residents and other stakeholders because the traditional methods of consultations became impossible due to travel restrictions and social distance measures …’ (Participant 12, Male, Age 60)

In terms of the value these digital tools bring in terms of efficiency and effectiveness of the local authority, participants agreed that they can reduce costs and workforce requirements by minimising paper usage and the need for personnel to organise events. By offering resources through online help desks, administrative efforts can be redirected towards other tasks. Another participant reiterated that:

‘… in line with the budget consultations, digital tools have been imperative in enhancing the City Council’s communication by utilising various channels, including websites and social media platforms …’ (Participant 10, Female, Age 45)

A website and online platforms have been used as the main digital tools to engage residents and other stakeholders in the budget-making processes. One of the major findings was that innovative websites as well as digital tools can successfully enhance public engagement by reducing hurdles for participants and fostering inclusivity. In this case, the PB process can become more legitimate and effective. The most fascinating aspect of the active website for the City of Bulawayo is the News and Notices portal that aims to bridge the gap between city authorities and other stakeholders. A key informant in the study had this to say:

‘… if you look at our website, there are active notices and currently we have a notice on budget review consultation meetings for the year 2025. This is one of the best methods to improve communication and also attendance in different venues in the city …’ (Participant 2, Male, Age 46)

Although these meetings are conducted on a face-to-face basis, efforts have been made to guarantee that different heterogeneous groups have the authority to influence decisions. A closer look at the News and Notices portal shows that different slots for the business community, media, Churches, Civil Society Organisations, non-government organisations, transport operators, informal traders, women and youth are arranged so that they make their voices heard in the budget review process.

Further to that, social media platforms such as Facebook and X (formerly Twitter) have been used to disseminate budget information:

‘We also have active Facebook and X accounts where we engage with our residents especially the younger generation who are active in social media …’ (Participant 6, Male, Age 34)

The digital platforms have been engineered to facilitate effective and intuitive participation and deliberation in PB projects, and they have encouraged engagement and discourse whilst integrating incentives and feedback mechanisms that motivate users to achieve specified objectives, such as submitting proposals and commenting on submissions. At the time of writing this article, the City of Bulawayo’s Facebook page had more than 67 000 followers and more than 43 500 followers on X. Despite the huge following on these social media platforms, questions have been raised about their effectiveness in the context of PB. There is a consensus amongst participants that enforcing PB through digital tools presents numerous challenges, and the procedure has not been a smooth one. The main point of departure presented in this article is that the efficacy of digitisation initiatives in the City relies on the appropriate implementation by management, and a conducive political and technical environment must be established for the PB project. The next section explores identified barriers which dwarf the effective use of digital tools in PB initiatives in the city.

Obstacles hindering the adoption of digital tools in participatory budgeting

The adoption of digital tools to enhance PB in the City of Bulawayo has not been a smooth one, as both authorities have compounding challenges that stifle effective implementation. Emergent themes in this regard are shown in Table 1.

Limited value of participatory budgeting and accountability

The in-depth interviews highlighted the limited recognition of the principle and advantages of financial openness and responsibility across participants. The discovery dissuades residents and other stakeholders from embracing digital tools for disseminating budgetary information and promoting citizen engagement in participatory budget governance and oversight over public expenditure. The main concerns are identified in the following responses from participants:

‘… the use of digital tools and technologies is a very innovative idea, which must encourage budgetary debates in these platforms. However, this is not the case as both city authorities and residents are reluctant to engage in these spaces and they will wait for face-to-face debates which are exclusionary in my opinion.’ (Participant 4, Female, Age 39)

Another key informant had this to say:

‘… e-participatory budgeting had not gained so much traction in the City of Bulawayo, and the biggest challenge is that authorities are reluctant to share budget information. You have seen that over the years, budget transparency has been pushed by a few Civil Society Organisations, and it remains a concept that has not been fully comprehended by the residents …’ (Participant 8, Male, Age 51)

Evidence shows that the lack of appreciation of budget accountability has some devastating effects on important aspects like transparency, financial management and responsive service delivery. A general consensus exists amongst study participants that when residents are partially engaged, an erosion of public trust and unfair resource allocation become the order of the day. In this case, the culture of accountability in the city must precede the adoption of digital platforms in PB.

Affordability of digital technology gadgets and other related services

The research study indicated that the substantial expense of digital devices and associated services has resulted in a digital gap in the accessibility and use of innovative communication technology amongst the residents in the City of Bulawayo. The disparity is primarily ascribed to insufficient internet infrastructure, affordability challenges, and skill deficiencies. A key informant summarised the concerns raised by reiterating that:

‘Whilst a majority of our residents do own smartphones, many of them cannot afford data to engage the City Council on digital platforms such as Facebook and X. More so, it is not given that everyone can read and process the information provided on those platforms. This defeats the whole process because this constrains the feedback expected from residents …’ (Participant 13, Male, Age 40)

This highlights the troubling aspect of disparities in access and use of digital platforms at different levels. The digital gap establishes and perpetuates disparities in civic participation over spending accountability. In order to buttress the concerns raised above, one of the community leaders reiterated that:

‘… when you look at this matter closely, you will find out that young people are the ones that fully interact with city officials in these digital platforms and this leaves out the elderly and those who cannot afford smart phones and this has consequences in terms of their contributions in budget processes.’ (Participant 1, Male, Age 54)

If unaddressed, these difficulties would persist as impediments to digitisation projects designed to enhance local governance, particularly budget transparency and accountability. Multiple stakeholders have proposed potential methods to mitigate the substantial expenses associated with the investment and upkeep of digitisation in the city.

Limited digital literacy

A further difficulty is the restricted information technology functional literacy, which serves as an impediment to the utilisation of digital platforms in PB processes. The findings revealed literacy as a prevalent issue amongst residents and stakeholders, irrespective of their educational attainment. Nonetheless, it emerged as a significant difficulty due to the poor educational levels or literacy amongst residents in the City of Bulawayo. The findings revealed that the individuals lacked essential abilities necessary for utilising digital devices to access, scrutinise budget information and provide comments. One of the interviewees had this to say:

‘Engaging our community in discussion is quite tough. When you implement a time-constrained format such as digital tools, you inhibit the opportunity for discussion. In matters requiring elucidation of figures, such platforms cannot permit individuals to provide the comprehensive information essential for our community, whose understanding remains significantly limited …’ (Participant 7, Female, Age 30)

Another key informant reiterated that:

‘Due to a poor understanding of the advantages of digital platforms and low technological literacy, several Councillors in the City persist in requesting physical copies of budgets and continue to question the legal validity and efficacy of technologies such as online meetings.’ (Participant 4, Female, Age 39)

The main consequence of limited digital literacy is that residents, Councillors and other stakeholders often find it difficult to engage the city authorities via digital tools. In this regard, their roles will only be confined to rubberstamping the budgetary decisions already made by those who occupy the top rungs of city administration. Whilst the City of Bulawayo has made tremendous efforts to engage primary stakeholders, digital literacy has remained a stumbling block towards enforcing effective PB processes within the city.

Discussion

The information obtained from the City of Bulawayo revealed a range of procedures, approaches, and trends that illustrate the complexity of the PB project. Evidence shows that PB is a comparatively recent democratic innovation adopted to bridge the gap between residents and city officials to reach a consensus on city expenditure (Salahudin et al. 2024). In contrast to other comparable projects, the City of Bulawayo has organised participation into a coherent, comprehensive process in which residents not only contribute but are directly engaged in final decisions. Participatory corridors are provided for residents to directly determine the allocation of public funds and, more broadly, make decisions that influence their daily urban experiences, supported by robust governmental commitment and explicit regulations. In line with the first core component of the TAM which is perceived usefulness of the digital tools, there is evidence that such tools present an opportunity to bridge the gap between the municipality and the residents. Nevertheless, despite the potential of these tools in enforcing participatory governance, the use of digital platforms in budgetary processes has faced some criticism. The use of various digital platforms usually provides the middle classes with an economical means to engage that may more effectively align with their own policy objectives. In this regard, the perceived usefulness of digital tools, as presented in the TAM, remains an elusive dream, given that digital platforms may not broaden the democratic framework to encompass the poor residents in the city but rather integrate the disengaged segments of the limited yet influential middle class. This notion is also supported by Touchton et al. (2019) who used the Brazilian experience to document the reality that middle-income communities with superior accessibility to technological advances may utilise the digital platforms, whilst economically disadvantaged communities will be excluded.

From the City of Bulawayo e-PB design standpoint, one approach to mitigate the digital divide between the rich and poor residents is to enhance in-person programs and actively include marginalised groups, rather than merely integrating additional middle-class individuals into digital online platforms. Incorporating both groups is essential, since PB serves as a vital platform for the impoverished to attain representation and direct empowerment in policy matters. The City of Bulawayo can utilise several methods to inform citizens about the PB project, both offline and online, including websites, social media, pamphlets, local media, and hybrid information events. A diverse array of involvement channels enhances project accessibility for various community groups and citizen types (Santolamazza et al. 2024). Another aspect of the City of Bulawayo’s PB model is that citizen engagement is only considered for the initial stages of budgeting. The monitoring and evaluation of expenditure remain the responsibility of city officials. This reveals the partial application of PB concept, and residents have limited authority to scrutinise the City of Bulawayo expenditure to check and ensure that funds have been spent in alignment with their priorities and needs.

Recommendations

Based on the primary evidence provided, the study recommends the following:

• The adoption of a hybrid strategy that seeks to integrates technological advances with conventional face to face engagements to guarantee inclusion and egalitarian engagements.
• Implementation of a citizen-friendly budget translation policy to convert budget statements from complex accounting language into visual summaries in local languages.
• Digitisation of the entire budget cycle to enable residents to track progress of projects implemented.
• Use of the digital tools to target the marginalised communities, not just the general population.

Conclusion

The study sought to underscore the transforming function of PB in the City of Bulawayo, providing an assessment of its democratic potential and identifying the barriers that impede its effective implementation in the digital era. Even though the concept of PB has been institutionalised to promote openness, involvement of residents and accountability, its full implementation is stifled by obstacles such as power dynamics, financial constraints, inadequate digital literacy and flawed participatory mechanisms, amongst many other factors. The adoption of digital technologies in the context of PB, including websites and social media platforms, has established novel opportunities to include heterogeneous groups in the budgetary process. However, concerns have been raised that e-PB in the City of Bulawayo has been designed in a manner that benefits the middle classes at the expense of the poor who have limited digital literacy and lack the financial means to influence budgetary decisions. The results emphasised the necessity for a hybrid strategy that integrates technological advances with conventional face-to-face engagements to guarantee inclusion and egalitarian engagement. Moreover, augmenting digital literacy, upgrading infrastructure, and cultivating an environment of responsibility are essential for closing the divide between citizens and municipal government. The consideration of the use of digital tools in PB in all the stages of the budget cycle must be emphasised to promote the culture of accountability and transparency. Enduring political will, focused capacity-building programs and flexible governance structures are necessary for the City of Bulawayo to fully harness the advantages of e-PB.

Acknowledgements

The researchers acknowledge the participants from the City of Bulawayo for dedicating their time to share their experiences and opinions on the subject matter.

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Nqobile Sikhosana: Conceptualisation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration and Writing – original draft. Mokgadi Molope: Conceptualisation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Supervision, Writing – original draft and Writing – review & editing.

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and are the product of professional research. They do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or that of the publisher. The authors are responsible for this article’s results, findings and content.

References